Tuesday, June 10, 2014

Review of injury lawyers scotland::communicate and to introduce new







Review of injury lawyers scotland::communicate and to introduce new








The               concept               of               sovereign               immunity               is               one               the               oldest               concepts               in               international               law.

It               has               come               under               attack               more               and               more               as               international               law               has               reached               farther               into               national               spheres               of               action.

The               law,               through               treaties,               can               prohibit               certain               acts               such               as               hostage               taking,               extra               judicial               killing               and               aircraft               sabotage,               but               sovereign               immunity               could               potentially               protect               states               from               culpability               for               participation               in               these               activities.

The               treaties               give               individuals               rights               to               be               protected               from               the               acts               of               terror.

But,               sovereign               immunity               denies               them               an               adequate               forum               in               which               to               receive               relief               for               their               injuries.

To               date,               no               state               except               the               United               States               has               addressed               this               problem               and               restricted               immunity               so               as               to               provide               a               judicial               forum               for               claims               against               states               accused               of               participating               in               terrorism.

I.

OVERVIEW               OF               IMMUNITY
               From               the               beginnings               of               international               law               there               has               been               one               fundamental               concept               that               was               strictly               observed               -               sovereign               nations               could               not               be               judged               by               the               courts               of               another               nation               (par               in               parem               non               habet               imperium               -               a               state               has               no               power               over               another               state).

In               the               Schooner               Exchange,               Chief               Justice               Marshall               summed               up               the               underlying               concept               as               "the               world               [is]               composed               of               distinct               sovereignties,               possessing               equal               rights               and               equal               independence."[1]               Since               the               nations               were               equals,               one               nation               could               not               judge               another.

A               sovereign               state               could               not               be               hailed               into               a               court               under               the               jurisdiction               of               another               sovereign.

Doing               so               would               imply               that               the               state               being               judged               was               somehow               subordinate               to               the               judging               state.

So,               states               were               completely               safe               from               being               faced               with               liability               for               state               actions               in               another               court.
               However,               nations               began               to               abuse               this               absolute               blanket               of               immunity.

This               abuse               was               most               ripe               in               the               area               of               commerce.

Nations               would               indulge               in               purely               commercial               activities,               and               then               claim               the               protection               of               sovereign               immunity               when               things               went               wrong               and               lawsuits               threatened.

This               caused               the               development               of               a               more               restrictive               theory               of               sovereign               immunity               wherein               sovereign               states               could               be               sued               under               certain,               very               specific               conditions.[2]               States               were               still               generally               immune               from               liability               unless               the               activity               occurred               in               the               context               of               one               of               the               accepted               exceptions.

In               the               United               States,               the               determination               was               made               by               the               State               Department               on               a               case-by-case               basis.

The               State               Department               would               notify               the               court               if               it               intended               recognizing               sovereign               immunity               of               the               charged               state               in               a               particular               matter.

If               no               note               was               received,               the               case               would               proceed.[3]               In               the               mid-1970's,               it               was               decided               to               codify               the               decision-making               and               take               the               politics               out               of               immunity               decisions.[4]               The               result               was               the               1976               Foreign               Sovereign               Immunity               Act.

The               United               Kingdom               followed               two               years               later               with               their               State               Immunity               Act.

The               United               Nations               opened               for               signature               in               2005               the               Convention               on               Jurisdictional               Immunities               of               States               and               Their               Properties.

This               is               the               current               legal               status               of               sovereign               immunity.
               II.

THE               LAWS               OF               THE               UNITED               STATES,               THE               UNITED               KINGDOM               AND               THE               UNITED               NATIONS
               The               Foreign               Sovereign               Immunity               Act               ("FSIA")               originally               contained               six               exceptions               to               the               accepted               general               immunity               of               states.

Two               of               them               -               the               commercial               activity               and               waiver               of               immunity               (the               charged               states               gives               consent)               exceptions               --               were               well-founded               in               international               law.

The               exception               for               personal               injury               or               property               damage               (torts)               was               a               fairly               new               concept.

It               reads:
               Not               otherwise               encompassed               in               paragraph               (2)               [commercial               activity               exception]               above,               in               which               money               damages               are               sought               against               a               foreign               state               for               personal               injury               or               death,               or               damage               to               or               loss               of               property,               occurring               in               the               United               States               and               caused               by               the               tortious               act               or               omission               of               that               foreign               state               or               of               any               official               or               employee               of               that               foreign               state               while               acting               within               the               scope               of               his               office               or               employment.[5]
               This               exception               was               to               be               applied               to               "garden               variety"               torts               such               as               slip               and               falls               in               front               of               embassies               or               car               accidents.

It               was               not               envisioned               to               encompass               acts               of               terror               committed               by               a               state               or               its               agents.

Nations               were               reassured               they               would               not               be               called               into               court               to               answer               for               their               governmental               policies.
               The               United               Kingdom's               State               Immunity               Act               (hereinafter               "State               Immunity               Act")               is               similar               to               the               United               States               Act.

It               begins               with               a               blanket               grant               of               immunity,               then               lists               several               exceptions.

One               of               these               is               the               tort               exception:               "A               State               is               not               immune               as               respects               proceedings               in               respect               of               (a)               death               or               personal               injury;               or               (b)               damage               or               loss               of               tangible               property,               caused               by               an               act               or               omission               in               the               United               Kingdom."[6]               It               is               presumed               this               was               also               meant               to               protect               against               minor               injuries               and               not               to               question               governmental               policies               or               interfere               with               foreign               relations.
               The               United               Nations               Convention               on               Jurisdictional               Immunities               of               States               and               Their               Properties               (hereinafter               "UN               Convention")               emphasized               the               general               immunity               of               States               is               a               "principle               of               customary               international               law."[7]               However,               it               also               recognized               that               exceptions               to               absolute               immunity               had               been               carved               out.

The               Convention,               among               other               exceptions,               contains               a               tort               exception:
               Unless               otherwise               agreed               between               the               States               concerned,               a               State               cannot               invoke               immunity               from               jurisdiction               before               the               court               of               another               States               which               is               otherwise               competent               in               a               proceeding               which               relates               to               pecuniary               compensation               for               death               or               injury               to               the               person,               or               damage               to               or               loss               of               tangible               property,               caused               by               an               act               or               omission               which               is               alleged               to               be               attributable               to               the               State,               if               the               act               or               omission               occurred               in               whole               or               in               part               in               the               territory               of               that               other               State               and               if               the               author               of               the               act               or               omission               was               present               in               that               territory               at               the               time               of               the               act               or               omission.[8]
               The               Convention               clearly               a               compilation               of               practices               found               in               most               -               if               not               all               -               countries.[9]               The               wording               definitely               shows               the               interference               of               diplomats.

Although               more               wordy               than               either               the               US               or               the               UK's               tort               exceptions,               it               distills               to               the               same               exception               ---               states               cannot               claim               immunity               for               personal               injuries               occurring               in               the               forum               state.

Presumably,               the               custom               is               to               apply               the               tort               exception               to               "garden               variety"               torts               and               not               to               acts               of               terror.
               One               thing               all               of               the               tort               exceptions               have               in               common               is               a               territoriality               limitation.

The               acts               complained               of               must               occur               within               the               territorial               limits               of               the               state               in               which               the               claim               is               brought.

Even               if               the               tort               exception               were               construed               to               apply               to               acts               of               terror,               it               would               be               limited               solely               to               acts               of               terror               within               the               nation's               borders.

Acts               of               terror               occurring               outside               the               nation's               border               would               still               allow               the               allegedly               culpable               nation               to               plead               sovereign               immunity.

If               terrorism               were               encompassed               in               the               United               States,               the               World               Trade               Center               attacks               would               be               included               in               the               tort               exception,               but               the               hijacking               of               the               Achille               Lauro               would               not.

In               the               UK,               the               Harrod's               bombing               by               the               IRA               in               1983               would               be               covered,               but               the               Bali               bombing               which               killed               several               British               citizens               in               2002               would               not.
               The               limitation               of               providing               a               forum               under               the               tort               exception               proved               to               be               a               problem               when               dealing               with               cases               involving               terrorism.

The               United               States               recognized               this               problem               after               a               string               of               incidents               beginning               with               the               Hezbollah               kidnappings               in               Lebanon               in               the               1980s               (including               the               death               of               Colonel               Higgins)               and               continuing               with               the               bombing               of               Pan               Am               flight               103.[10]               Congress               also               recognized               that               those               funding               and/or               aiding               terrorists               were               getting               better               at               hiding               their               connection               in               order               to               escape               prosecution.[11]               As               the               acts               of               terror               were               occurring               outside               the               US,               the               victims               and               their               families               were               left               without               recourse               considering               the               courts               where               the               acts               occurred               did               not               provide               adequate               forums               for               relief.

There               was               no               viable               legal               recourse               even               though               these               acts               often               violated               international               treaties.[12]               There               was               a               need               for               an               additional               exception               to               FSIA,               one               that               would               explicitly               cover               terrorist               acts               and               would               extend               beyond               the               borders               of               the               US.

In               1997,               the               terrorism               exception               was               enacted:
               [N]ot               otherwise               covered               by               paragraph               (2)               [commercial               activity               exception],               in               which               money               damages               are               sought               against               a               foreign               state               for               personal               injury               or               death               that               was               caused               by               an               act               of               torture,               extrajudicial               killing,               aircraft               sabotage,               hostage               taking,               or               the               provision               of               material               support               or               resources               ...

for               such               an               act               if               such               act               or               provision               of               material               support               is               engaged               in               by               an               official,               employee,               or               agent               of               such               foreign               state               while               acting               within               the               scope               of               his               or               her               office,               employment,               or               agency,               except               that               the               court               shall               decline               to               hear               a               claim               under               this               paragraph               --
               (A)               if               the               foreign               state               was               not               designated               as               a               state               sponsor               of               terrorism               [by               the               State               Department]               at               the               time               the               act               occurred,               unless               later               so               designated               as               a               result               of               such               act               ...;               and
               (B)               even               if               the               foreign               state               is               or               was               so               designated,               if               -
               (i)               the               act               occurred               in               the               foreign               state               against               which               the               claim               has               been               brought               and               the               claimant               has               not               afforded               the               foreign               state               a               reasonable               opportunity               to               arbitrate               the               claim               in               accordance               with               accepted               international               rules               of               arbitration;               or
               (ii)               neither               the               claiming               nor               the               victim               was               a               national               of               the               United               States               ...

when               the               act               upon               which               the               claim               is               based               occurred.[13]
               This               exception               was               not               without               controversy.

In               opposition               to               this               exception,               some               Congress               members               worried               that               it               would               cause               other               countries               to               enact               similar               exceptions               with               extraterritorial               reach,               ones               that               could               be               detrimental               to               the               United               States               and               its               interests.[14]               The               counter               argument               to               this               was               that               the               exception               imposed               no               further               duties               on               governments               than               those               already               existing               under               international               treaties.

Furthermore,               Congress               found               it               incongruous               that               a               person               could               sue               for               violation               of               a               contract               by               a               sovereign               state               but               not               for               the               far               more               serious               act               of               torture               or               terrorism.[15]
               No               other               country               contains               such               a               far               reaching               exception               to               immunity.

The               closest               that               occurs               is               that               the               United               Kingdom's               State               Immunity               Act               allows               the               Monarch               to               extend               or               restrict               the               immunities               in               accord               with               any               international               treaty               to               which               the               United               Kingdom               and               the               accused               State               are               parties.[16]               Parliament               can               act               to               nullify               the               Monarch's               extension               or               restriction,               but               a               failure               to               act               would               allow               the               extension               or               restriction               to               stand.[17]               Presumably               then,               under               this               section,               the               Monarch               could               refuse               to               allow               sovereign               immunity               if               the               State               were               in               violation               of               an               international               treaty               such               as               the               Torture               Convention               or               the               European               Convention               on               Human               Rights.

It               does               not               appear               Her               Majesty               has               ever               done               so,               therefore,               it               is               unclear               how               the               courts               would               treat               a               Royal               Act               under               this               section.

The               courts               in               both               the               United               States               and               the               United               Kingdom,               however,               have               tended               to               take               a               strict               constructionist               approach               to               exceptions               to               sovereign               immunity.
               III.

CASES
               Once               aggrieved               individuals               were               given               the               right               to               bring               suit               against               sovereign               states,               they               tried               to               expand               the               exceptions               through               the               common               law.

Given               the               treaties               that               prohibited               terrorist               acts,               the               lawyers               believed               there               was               a               good               faith               argument               for               extension               of               existing               law.

The               courts               listened               to               the               arguments,               but               in               general,               rejected               them.

Absent               a               specific               exception               there               was               just               no               forum               for               acts               occurring               outside               the               national               jurisdiction               of               the               courts.
               A.

U.S.

Cases
               One               of               the               first               cases               filed               after               the               codification               of               the               FSIA               was               Filartiga               v.

Pena-Irala.

The               plaintiffs,               a               father               and               daughter,               were               citizens               of               Paraguay               whose               son               and               brother               had               been               allegedly               tortured               to               death               by               the               defendant               at               the               behest               of               the               dictator               of               Paraguay.

The               defendant               eventually               moved               to               the               United               States,               where               one               of               the               plaintiffs               was               also               living.

They               commenced               an               action               for               wrongful               death               in               violation               of               various               international               treaties.[18]               The               Second               Circuit               ruled               in               1980               that               "In               light               of               the               universal               condemnation               of               torture               in               numerous               international               agreements,               and               the               renunciation               of               torture               as               an               instrument               of               official               policy               by               virtually               all               of               the               nations               of               the               world               ...,               we               find               that               an               act               of               torture               committed               by               a               state               official               against               one               held               in               detention               violates               established               norms               of               the               international               law               of               human               rights,               and               hence               the               law               of               nations."[19]Although               not               brought               against               a               state               and               thus               not               implicating               sovereign               immunity,               Filartiga               set               the               basis               for               establishing               torture               as               an               activity               outside               the               accepted               acts               of               a               state.

It               noted               that               it               was               the               right               of               all               humanity               to               be               free               from               torture.

Should               one               be               tortured,               there               should               be               no               escape               from               civil               liability               for               "the               torturer               has               become               like               the               pirate               and               slave               trader               before               him               hosti               humani               generis,               an               enemy               of               all               mankind."[20]               This               appeared               to               be               a               step               towards               declaring               universal               jurisdiction               over               acts               of               torture.

Universal               jurisdiction               allows               any               state               to               hear               a               claim               for               certain               universally               condemned               acts               regardless               of               where               committed.

However,               this               first               step               went               no               further               when               sovereign               immunity               was               implicated.
               The               Letelier               case               in               the               same               circuit               four               years               later               showed               how               limited               universal               condemnation               of               an               act               could               be               when               a               state               was               involved.

The               former               Chilean               Ambassador               and               his               aide               were               killed               by               a               car               bomb               in               Washington,               D.C.

A               connection               between               the               bombers               and               the               Chilean               government               was               established               during               the               investigation.

Since               the               act               occurred               in               the               United               States,               the               plaintiffs               were               allowed               to               proceed               against               Chile               under               the               tort               exception.

The               plaintiffs               were               granted               default               judgment               against               the               defendants.[21]               However,               they               were               prevented               from               executing               the               judgment               against               the               Chilean               national               airline               (a               part               of               the               Chilean               government               and               the               only               asset               in               the               United               Stats)               because               the               court               held               that               the               commercial               activity               exception               and               the               tort               exception               were               mutually               exclusive.

The               Chilean               national               airline               could               only               be               proceeded               against               if               the               commercial               exception               applied               in               the               original               matter,               since               it               was               a               business               that               had               no               part               in               the               tort.

The               court               stated               that               use               of               the               tort               exception               to               Chile's               sovereign               immunity               meant               the               judgment               could               not               be               executed               under               another               immunity               exception.[22]               But,               the               court               did               reiterate               that               the               "restrictive               view               [of               sovereign               immunity]               grants               immunity               for               'governmental'               acts               of               a               foreign               state               and               denies               it               for               acts               of               a               'private'               nature."[23]               Private               acts               are               those               in               which               an               individual               could               legally               engage.

Terrorism,               by               implication               is               considered               a               state               act,               which               could               then               be               granted               immunity               from               prosecution.[24]               
               The               conclusion               to               be               reached               from               this               ruling               is               that               a               state               is               free               to               commit               acts               of               terrorism               such               as               a               car               bombing               but               cannot               refuse               to               pay               for               goods               received.

This               case               was               the               first               to               recognize               that               while               various               statutes               and               treaties               gave               individuals               a               cause               of               action,               sovereign               immunity               might               prevent               the               aggrieved               party               from               seeking               redress,               that               "Congress               did               in               fact               create               a               right               without               a               remedy."[25]
               One               of               the               last               cases               before               Congress               amended               FSIA               to               include               the               terrorism               exception               was               Cicippio               v.

Iran.

This               case               involved               the               abductions               of               Cicippio               and               others               by               Hezbollah               in               Lebanon.

Hezbollah               is               allegedly               funded               by               Iran.[26]               All               the               acts               alleged               in               the               complaint               occurred               outside               the               United               States.

The               plaintiffs               claimed               the               commercial               activity               and               tort               exceptions               to               sovereign               immunity.

The               D.C.

Circuit               built               on               the               Second               Circuit's               ruling               in               Letelier               that               acts               of               "assassination,               extortion,               blackmail               and               kidnapping"               were               not               commercial               activity,               since               private               persons               could               not               legally               engage               in               such               activities.

This               is               so               even               though               blackmail,               extortion               and               kidnapping               involve               the               exchange               of               money.[27]               Further,               in               ruling               against               the               plaintiffs,               the               court               noted               that               the               tort               exception               requires               that               both               the               act               and               the               injury               occur               inside               the               United               States.[28]Since               the               acts               claimed               did               not               fit               into               either               claimed               immunity               exception,               so               the               plaintiffs               could               not               proceed               against               Iran.

They               were               left               with               injuries               from               violation               of               international               law               with               no               adequate               forum               to               address               their               claims.
               One               of               the               acts               that               inspired               the               terrorism               exception               was               the               bombing               of               Pan               Am               103               over               Lockerbie,               Scotland.

The               bomb               was               allegedly               placed               aboard               the               plane               in               Malta.

It               went               off               while               the               plane               was               flying               over               Lockerbie,               killing               all               on               board               and               several               people               on               the               ground.

The               investigation               traced               the               instigation               of               the               act               back               to               Libya.[29]               The               original               case               was               filed               before               the               terrorism               exception               was               added               to               the               FSIA.

It               was               dismissed               on               the               grounds               that               it               did               not               fit               one               of               the               specified               exceptions               at               that               time,               because               all               the               acts               occurred               outside               the               United               States.[30]               After               the               terrorism               exception               was               enacted,               the               case               was               refiled.

This               time,               the               court               found               that               the               terrorism               exception               constituted               a               valid               exception               to               Libya's               assertion               of               immunity               and               the               case               was               allowed               to               proceed.

Although               not               the               type               of               exception               usually               enacted,               the               court               found               that               the               terrorism               exception               was               a               valid               exercise               of               Congressional               power.

It               was               within               the               power               of               Congress               to               "abrogate               (or               confer)               sovereign               immunity."[31]Under               the               restrictive               theory,               a               legislature               can               create               exceptions,               but               only               those               exceptions               so               created               are               valid.

Absent               a               specific               exception,               sovereign               immunity               holds.

But,               once               the               exception               has               been               statutorily               created,               a               matter               may               be               pursued               against               the               state               under               that               exception.
               The               creation               of               the               terrorism               exception               allowed               for               relief               in               a               number               of               cases               wherein               it               would               have               been               denied               before.

In               1998,               the               DC               Circuit               allowed               the               plaintiffs               to               proceed               against               Iran               (this               time               for               allegedly               funding               Islamic               Jihad)               in               the               case               of               Flatow               v.

Iran.[32]               This               case               was               brought               on               behalf               of               the               family               of               an               American               exchange               student               who               was               killed               in               a               bus               bombing               in               Gaza.

The               court               stated               that               the               tort               exception               with               its               territorial               limitation               to               acts               inside               the               U.S.

had               "permitted               foreign               states               to               use               the               FSIA               as               a               shield               against               civil               liability               for               violations               of               the               law               of               nations               committed               against               United               States               nationals               overseas."[33]               The               court               noted               it               would               lack               subject               matter               jurisdiction               unless               the               matter               fell               within               one               of               the               specifically               enumerated               exceptions.[34]               Prior               to               1997,               this               meant               that               terrorist               acts               committed               overseas               were               immune               from               prosecution               in               U.S.

courts.

The               court               approvingly               commented               that,               "[f]or               the               first               time,               Congress               has               expressly               created               an               exception               to               immunity               designed               to               influence               the               sovereign               conduct               of               foreign               states               and               affect               the               substantive               law               of               liability               for               immune               acts."[35]               No               longer               would               states               be               free               to               act               against               U.S.

nationals               believing               themselves               free               from               liability.

The               United               States               was               not               acting               simply               out               of               frustration               without               any               legal               basis               for               extending               US               law               to               acts               occurring               beyond               its               borders.

The               court               made               clear               that               Congress               was               acting               within               the               confines               of               international               law               by               enacting               this               exception.

The               court               clearly               stated               that               this               exception               is               founded               in               international               law               as               "three               of               the               five               bases               for               the               exercise               of               territorial               jurisdiction               are               implicated               in               actions               by               United               States               victims               of               foreign               state               sponsored               terrorism:               passive               personality               (nationality               of               victim),               protective               (national               security               interests)               and               universal               (subject               to               jurisdiction               where               the               offender               may               be               found)."[36]               In               fact,               the               terrorism               exception               "would               be               redundant               if               it               were               to               apply               only               within               the               United               States"               since               the               tort               exception               was               already               held               to               apply               to               acts               of               terror               committed               in               the               United               States               (Letelier).[37]               The               court               concluded               that               the               "application               of               the               ...

terrorism               provisions               to               extraterritorial               conduct               is               proper."[38]This               is               important               because               it               integrated               international               norms               of               jurisdiction               into               US               law,               allowing               cases               of               terrorist               acts               occurring               outside               the               United               States               to               proceed,               no               matter               how               much               the               foreign               state               might               protest.[39]               It               ensured               states               no               longer               had               a               shield               to               hide               behind               and               that               victims               now               had               a               forum               to               try               their               grievances.
               In               2000,               the               D.C.

District               Court               in               Elahi               v.

Iran               made               a               strong               statement               about               what               purveyors               of               terrorism               and               their               funders               could               expect               in               the               future               from               the               courts.

This               case               involved               the               killing               of               a               US               national               who               was               an               Iranian               dissident.

The               victim               was               assassinated               in               Paris,               allegedly               at               the               behest               of               the               Iranian               government.[40]               Building               both               on               Filartiga's               statement               about               the               reprehensibility               of               terrorists               and               Flatow's               understanding               of               sovereign               states               hiding               behind               immunity               to               keep               from               being               held               responsible               for               terrorist               conduct,               the               court               stated               "Those               nations               that               operate               in               a               manner               inconsistent               with               international               norms               should               not               expect               to               be               granted               the               privilege               of               immunity               from               suit,               that               is               within               the               prerogative               of               Congress               to               grant               or               withhold."[41]               Congress               could               have               continued               to               allow               immunity               for               acts               of               terror               occurring               outside               the               United               States,               they               chose               not               to               do               so.

If               states               do               not               wish               to               be               held               liable               for               terrorism,               their               only               protection               is               to               refrain               from               participating               in               terrorism.

Congress               has               used               its               legislative               power               to               determine               that               immunity               will               no               longer               apply               for               such               acts.

At               least               in               the               US,               there               would               be               a               forum               to               enforce               the               relevant               treaties.
               The               most               recent               case               involved               an               action               against               Sudan               for               aiding               Al               Qaeda               in               the               bombing               of               the               U.S.S.

Cole               in               Yemen.[42]               Since               the               ability               of               Congress               to               create               the               exception               has               been               firmly               established,               the               Fourth               Circuit               confined               itself               to               the               elements               of               causation,               which               may               limit               holding               a               nation               responsible               for               funding               or               materially               support               terrorists.

The               burden               is               on               the               plaintiff               to               establish               causation               and               that               the               funding               of               the               alleged               terrorist               organization               was               not               too               remote               from               the               overt               terrorist               act.[43]               This               follows               the               basic               tort               element               of               proximate               causation,               there               must               be               a               "reasonable               connection               between               the               act               or               omission               of               the               defendant               and               the               damages               which               the               plaintiff               has               suffered."[44]               Specifically               with               regards               to               terror               funding,               the               court               ruled               "Plaintiffs               must               establish               jurisdictional               causation               by               alleging               facts               sufficient               to               establish               a               reasonable               connection               between               a               country's               provision               of               material               support               to               a               terrorist               organization               and               the               damage               arising               out               of               a               terrorist               attack".[45]               This               would               prevent               a               state               that               had               only               provided               minimal               funding               or               support               or               had               done               so               long               in               the               past               from               being               held               responsible               for               acts               in               which               it               took               no               part,               simply               because               it               is               easier               to               hail               a               state               into               court               than               a               terrorist               organization.

Although               states               have               gotten               better               at               hiding               their               connection               to               terror               funding,               once               the               connection               is               found,               they               can               no               longer               escape               from               liability               through               the               blanket               of               sovereign               immunity.
               
No               longer               was               there               a               right               without               a               remedy.

U.S.

nationals               would               no               longer               have               the               right               to               be               free               from               torture               and               extrajudicial               killings               without               having               a               forum               to               bring               their               grievances               should               that               right               be               violated,               regardless               of               the               location               the               acts.

Congress,               within               the               bounds               of               international               law,               acted               to               fill               a               gap               in               the               exceptions               to               sovereign               immunity               that               was               being               exploited               by               those               with               little               or               no               regard               for               international               law               or               human               rights.
               B.

UK               Cases
               The               United               Kingdom               takes               much               the               same               approach               as               the               US               courts               -               immunity               is               presumed               unless               it               falls               within               one               of               the               enumerated               exceptions.

But,               the               United               Kingdom               does               not               have               the               terrorism               exception               and               the               tort               exception               is               limited               in               application               to               acts               occurring               within               the               United               Kingdom.
               One               case               wound               its               way               through               the               various               courts               and               all               the               way               to               the               European               Court               of               Human               Rights.

The               plaintiff               was               allegedly               tortured               in               Kuwait               after               the               liberation               from               Iraq,               then               threats               were               allegedly               made               against               him               in               London               after               he               returned               and               spoke               to               the               media               about               his               ordeal.

He               filed               suit               against               his               torturers               then               later               amended               his               complaint               to               include               Saudi               Arabia.
               The               first               hearing               was               before               the               Court               of               Appeal               (Civil               Division)               in               1994.

The               plaintiff               had               sought               permission               to               serve               Kuwait               as               a               defendant               in               the               matter               and               been               denied.

He               appealed               the               denial.

The               appellate               court               notes               that               the               intention               of               the               State               Immunity               Act               was               "to               give               effect               to               the               European               Convention               [on               State               Immunity]               of               1972"[46]               and               the               customary               rules               of               international               law.

Therefore               immunity               must               be               construed               in               accordance               with               such               customary               rules               such               as               the               assertion               of               universal               jurisdiction.

It               further               notes               that               torture               is               a               crime               in               the               United               Kingdom               regardless               of               where               the               act               occurred.

Although               the               instant               case               concerned               a               civil               matter,               the               court               holds               that               "the               plaintiff               does               show               a               good               arguable               case               on               [his]               proposition               which               is               that               no               ...

sovereign               immunity               should               be               accorded               even               under               the               State               Immunity               Act               in               respect               of               acts               which               ...

are               properly               described               as               torture               in               contravention               of               public               international               law."[47]               This               decision               is               further               bolstered               by               the               court's               finding               that               some               of               the               injuries               complained               of               occurred               in               the               UK.

The               court               declined               a               strict               reading               of               the               tort               exception               that               all               of               the               injuries               must               occur               in               the               UK,               finding               that               some               acts               occurring               in               the               UK               is               enough               to               satisfy               that               exception,               especially               as               the               acts               were               in               contravention               of               the               Convention               against               Torture               and               the               European               Convention               on               Human               Rights.[48]               In               giving               life               to               the               Convention               on               Torture               and               the               concepts               underlying               exceptions               to               sovereign               immunity,               the               Court               of               Appeals               found               a               remedy               for               the               rights               granted.
               After               serving               Kuwait,               the               case               was               heard               before               the               Queen's               Bench               Division               in               1995.

As               in               the               U.S.,               the               burden               is               on               the               plaintiff               to               prove               an               exception               to               sovereign               immunity.

Although               the               Court               of               Appeals               stated               the               plaintiff               had               an               "arguable               case,"[49]               the               Queen's               Bench               ruled               against               him               on               the               issue               of               sovereign               immunity.

The               court               concluded               similarly               to               the               US               that               the               acts               alleged               must               fall               into               one               of               the               given               specific               exceptions               in               order               for               the               case               to               proceed               and               there               was               no               statutory               exception               for               acts               of               torture               occurring               outside               the               territory               of               the               UK.[50]               It               rejected               the               argument               that               the               blanket               immunity               granted               in               §1               of               the               State               Immunity               Act               could               be               read               to               include               the               implicit               exception               of               acts               committed               in               violation               of               jus               cogens               or               customary               law.

The               court               held               "In               clear               language,               the               Act               bestows               immunity               upon               sovereign               states               for               acts               committed               outside               the               jurisdiction               of               the               English               courts               and               by               making               express               provision               for               exceptions               to               that               general               immunity               excludes               as               a               matter               of               construction               the               possibility               of               the               implied               exception               for               which               the               plaintiff               contends."[51]               Basically,               if               Parliament               did               not               explicitly               list               the               exception,               the               claimed               exception               did               not               exist.

Expressio               unius               est               exclusio               alterius               applies               especially               when               dealing               with               the               issue               of               one               of               the               oldest               traditions               of               international               law               -               nations               are               sovereign               and               independent.

Since               this               case               occurred               before               the               terrorism               exception               to               FSIA,               the               court               noted               that               the               US               courts               had               followed               the               same               reasoning,               citing               Amerada               Hess               that               if               jus               cogens               outside               the               US               was               to               be               an               exception,               Congress               would               have               to               explicitly               act.[52]               Again,               there               was               no               forum               that               could               provide               a               remedy               for               acts               of               terror               except               within               the               state               where               the               act               occurred,               unless               Parliament               acted.
               Failing               at               the               trial               court               level,               the               plaintiff               appealed               his               case               to               the               Court               of               Appeal               (Civil               Division)               in               1996.

This               court               closely               examined               the               enumerated               exceptions               and               the               circumstances               surrounding               the               passage               of               the               State               Immunity               Act.

The               court               concluded               that               the               Act               was               a               "comprehensive               code"               that               was               "not               subject               to               overriding               considerations,"[53]               such               as               an               implied               jus               cogens               exception               to               sovereign               immunity.

Given               this               intent,               "It               is               inconceivable,               ...

that               the               draughtsman,               who               must               have               been               well               aware               of               the               various               international               agreements               about               torture,               intended               s               1               to               be               subject               to               an               overriding               consideration."[54]               Just               as               the               trial               court               reasoned,               the               appellate               court               affirmed               that               if               it               is               not               a               listed               exception,               the               state               is               entitled               to               immunity               for               the               claimed               acts.

The               fact               that               some               of               the               incidents               occurred               in               the               UK               was               not               enough               to               extend               jurisdiction               over               the               whole.

Another               justice               noted               that               not               finding               an               exception               to               sovereign               immunity               for               acts               causing               personal               injury               outside               the               UK               would               leave               the               injured               party               with               no               viable               recourse.[55]               However,               the               Act               is               clear               that               the               tort               exception               only               applies               to               acts               occurring               in               the               UK.[56]               Again,               the               aggrieved               party               faced               having               a               right               with               no               remedy               or               available               forum.
               It               was               the               absence               of               an               available               forum               that               caused               the               plaintiff               to               appeal               to               the               European               Court               of               Human               Rights               in               2000               alleging               that               the               grant               of               immunity               denied               him               access               to               the               court               which               was               a               violation               of               the               European               Convention               on               Human               Rights.[57]               The               court               recognized               that               the               grant               of               sovereign               immunity               was               in               pursuit               of               comity               and               good               relations.

Therefore               any               state               recognizing               this               immunity               in               accord               with               "generally               recognized               rules               of               public               international               law"               did               not               impose               "disproportionate               restrictions               on               the               right               of               access               to               courts."[58]               The               ancient               right               of               sovereign               immunity               did               not               conflict               with               the               created               right               of               access               to               courts.

The               court               then               examined               whether               the               prohibition               of               torture               has               achieved               the               status               of               a               peremptory               norm.

The               court               found               it               did               not.

The               very               fact               that               the               US               felt               it               necessary               to               explicitly               except               terrorism               from               sovereign               immunity               was               confirmation               of               the               fact               that               such               an               exception               was               not               a               peremptory               norm.[59]               The               court               recognized               that               it               may               yet               achieve               such               status               but               did               not               "find               it               established               that               there               is               yet               acceptance               in               international               law               of               the               proposition               that               States               are               not               entitled               to               immunity               in               respect               of               civil               claims               for               damages               for               alleged               torture               committed               outside               the               forum               state."[60]To               be               established               as               jus               cogens               it               must               be               customary               practice               among               nations               and               considered               a               legal               obligation               to               follow               this               practice.

At               this               time,               the               European               Court               of               Human               Rights               did               not               find               a               wide               spread               practice               of               allowing               for               exceptions               to               immunity               in               violation               of               international               treaties               such               as               the               Convention               Against               Torture               for               acts               occurring               outside               the               forum               state.

Nor               did               it               find               any               state               but               the               US               believing               it               is               a               legal               obligation               to               follow               this               practice.

This               finally               ended               the               Al-Adsani               matter               in               2001,               still               without               an               adequate               forum               to               assert               his               claim
               In               2006,               a               claim               was               laid               against               Saudi               Arabia               for               assault               and               battery,               trespass               to               the               person,               false               imprisonment               and               torture.

These               acts               all               allegedly               occurred               in               Saudi               Arabia.

The               matter               was               appealed               all               the               way               to               the               House               of               Lords.[61]               The               Lords               very               carefully               examined               a               wide               ranging               number               of               cases               in               various               countries               in               order               to               determine               if               an               exception               to               sovereign               immunity               could               be               implied               as               acts               of               torture               were               outside               the               normal               acts               of               government.[62]               The               court               reasoned               that               state               immunity               is               a               matter               of               procedure               that               grants               or               withholds               jurisdiction.

The               mere               prohibition               of               certain               acts               under               international               law               is               not               enough               to               confer               jurisdiction               in               a               particular               court.[63]               There               must               be               some               basis               for               the               assertion               of               the               court's               jurisdiction               over               a               specific               claim.

As               one               justice               noted,               Lord               Diplock               has               previously               ruled               in               another               case               that               "the               provisions               of               the               1979               Act               fall               to               be               construed               against               the               background               of               these               principles               of               public               international               law               as               are               generally               recognized               by               the               family               of               nations."[64]               For               there               to               be               an               exception,               it               must               be               equally               as               valid               as               the               generally               accepted               notion               of               general               immunity               of               sovereign               states.

It               noted               that               the               US               has               such               an               exception               which               is               to               commended,               but               has               not               received               much               support               to               date.[65]               Much               as               the               court               felt               for               the               plaintiff,               there               just               was               no               basis               in               international               law               for               an               exception               that               extended               to               acts               beyond               the               sovereign               state.[66]
               The               two               cases               have               one               thing               in               common;               they               reference               the               clear               language               of               the               statute               as               excluding               acts               occurring               outside               the               United               Kingdom.

They               noted               that               if               Parliament               had               intended               the               tort               exception               to               have               extraterritoriality               jurisdiction,               the               drafters               would               have               included               such               a               provision.

The               judges               only               reluctantly               concluded               that               if               sovereign               immunity               is               to               be               denied,               the               denial               must               rest               on               one               of               the               enumerated               exceptions.

Absent               an               exception,               the               court               must               dismiss               the               state               defendant               on               immunity               grounds.

The               clear               implication               of               this               is:               if               Parliament               were               to               pass               an               exception               similar               to               the               United               States               terrorism               exception,               the               British               courts               might               be               willing               to               allow               cases               to               proceed               against               states               for               participating               in               torture               and               terrorism               in               violation               of               international               law.
               C.

UN               Cases
               The               UN               began               work               on               its               convention               in               the               early               1990's.

The               wording               was               set               in               1993,               before               the               US               enacted               its               terrorism               exception.

Since               the               United               Nations               Convention               only               codifies               the               generally               accepted               exceptions               and               does               not               provide               for               an               international               forum               to               hear               claims,               there               are               no               cases               to               discuss.

However,               an               international               forum               might               solve               some               of               the               issues               of               there               being               rights               that               can               be               asserted               under               international               treaties               but               for               which               there               is               no               adequate               forum               in               which               to               assert               those               rights.

An               international               forum               would               allow               cases               by               individuals               which               allege               violations               of               treaties               to               be               heard               in               a               neutral               court,               rather               than               futilely               attempting               to               bring               a               claim               in               a               court               wherein               the               acts               of               terror               occurred               allegedly               under               the               auspices               of               the               forum               state.[67]
               IV.

CONCLUSION
               At               this               time,               the               United               States               is               the               sole               country               to               allow               an               exception               to               sovereign               immunity               for               acts               in               violation               of               international               treaties               that               occur               outside               the               United               States.

Although               the               US               is               technically               correct               by               extending               jurisdiction               in               this               manner               under               the               theories               of               passive               personality               and               universal               jurisdiction,               such               extension               has               not               risen               to               the               level               of               jus               cogens.

Nor               is               it               considered               part               of               the               customary               law               of               nations.

The               restrictive               theory               of               sovereign               immunity               only               allows               for               certain               specified               exceptions.

Other               nations,               particularly               the               United               Kingdom               seem               to               accept               that               such               an               exception               as               the               US               created               is               possible,               but               any               exception               must               be               legislatively               enacted.

If               Parliament               were               to               act,               the               Court               seems               willing               to               enforce               such               action.

Until               that               time,               no               court               seems               willing               to               find               an               overriding               restriction               on               immunity               based               on               violations               of               international               law               for               acts               occurring               outside               the               forum               state.

However,               international               law               is               ever               evolving.

At               one               time,               any               exception               seemed               unthinkable.

Someday,               the               torturer               and               terrorist               will               be               treated               as               the               pirate,               subject               to               prosecution               anywhere               for               acts               that               occurred               in               any               location.

There               will               be               a               remedy               for               violations               of               those               rights               and               a               forum               to               administer               the               remedy.
               [1]               The               Schooner               Exchange               v.

M'Faddon,               11               U.S.

116,               135               (1812).
               [2]               A               Primer               on               Foreign               Sovereign               Immunity,               HC.org,               March               8,               2006,               available               at               http://www.hg.org/articles/article_1223.html.
               [3]               Id.
               [4]               Letelier               v.

Chile,               748               F.2d               790,               796               (2nd               Circ.

1984)
               [5]               28               U.S.C.S.

§1605(5),               Lexis               (2006).

There               are               some               actions               by               the               official               in               which               this               section               does               not               apply,               it               does               not               apply               if               the               action               is               based               on               the               exercise               or               lack               thereof               of               a               discretionary               function,               or               for               abuse               of               process,               malicious               prosecution,               libel,               slander,               misrepresentation,               deceit               or               interference               with               contract               rights.
               [6]               State               Immunity               Act               1978,               Ch.

33               s.

5               (Eng.)               (hereinafter               State               Immunity               Act).
               [7]               UN               Convention               on               Jurisdictional               Immunities               of               States               and               Their               Property               (hereinafter               UN               Convention),               Preamble
               [8]               UN               Convention,               Article               12.
               [9]               An               inquiry               into               whether               the               United               States               is               the               only               one               to               not               apply               the               tort               exception               to               certain               types               of               activities               is               beyond               the               scope               of               this               paper.
               [10]               House               Report               No.

104-383,               104th               Congress,               1st               Sess.

1995,               p.

41.
               [11]               Rux               v.

Sudan,               461               F.3d               461,               470               (4th               Circ.

2006).
               [12]               House               Report               No.

103-702,               103rd               Congress,               2nd               Session,               1994,               pp.

3-4.

Treaties               such               as               the               Convention               Against               Torture,               Convention               for               the               Suppression               of               Unlawful               Acts               Against               the               Safety               of               Civil               Aviation,               and               the               International               Convention               Against               the               Taking               of               Hostages.
               [13]               28               U.S.C.S.

§1605(7).
               [14]               House               Report               No.

103-702,               p.

10.
               [15]               Id.

at               p.

3.
               [16]               State               Immunity               Act               1978,               Ch.

33,               s.15               (Eng.).
               [17]               Id.
               [18]               Filartiga               v.

Pena-Irala,               630               F.2d.

876,               878               (2nd               Circ.

1980).
               [19]               Id.

at               880.
               [20]               Id.

at               889.
               [21]               Letelier               v.

Chile,               748               F.2d               790,               791               (2nd               Circ.

1984).
               [22]               Id.

at               795.
               [23]               Id.

at               796
               [24]Id.

at               797               "LAN               is               accused               of               engaging               in               state-sponsored               terrorism               the               purpose               of               which               ...

was               to               assassinate               an               opponent               of               the               Chilean               government.

Politically               motivated               assassinations               are               not               traditionally               the               function               of               private               individuals."               Id.
               [25]               Id.
               [26]               Cicippio               v.

Iran,               30               F.3d.

164               (Dist.

App.

D.C.

Circ.

1994).
               [27]               Id.

at               167
               [28]               Id.

at               169.
               [29]               Rein               v.

Libya,               162               F.3d               748               (2nd               Circ.

1998).
               [30]               Id.

at               754.

The               dismissal               may               be               found               at               137               L.Ed.

2d               714               (1997).
               [31]               Id.

at               763
               [32]               Flatow               v.

Iran,               999               F.

Supp               1               (D.C.

District               Court,               1998).
               [33]               Id.

at               11
               [34]               Id.
               [35]               Id.

at               14.
               [36]               Id.

at               n7.
               [37]               Id               at               15.
               [38]               Id.

at               16.
               [39]               Serving               the               foreign               state               properly               in               order               to               establish               personal               jurisdiction               still               continues               to               be               a               problem,               as               is               execution               of               any               judgment               that               might               be               rendered.

However,               these               issues               are               outside               the               scope               of               this               paper.
               [40]               Elahi               v.

Iran,               124               F.Supp.

2nd               97               (D.C.

District               Court               2000).
               [41]               Id.

at               105.
               [42]               Rux               v.

Sudan,               461               F.3d               461               (4th               Circ.

2006).
               [43]               Id.

at               472-473
               [44]               Id.

at               473.
               [45]               Id.
               [46]               Al-Adsani               v.

Kuwait,               Court               of               Appeal               Civil               Division,               1994.
               [47]               Id.
               [48]               Id.
               [49]               Id.
               [50]               Al-Adsani               v.

Kuwait,               Queen's               Bench               Division,               1995.
               [51]               Id.
               [52]               Id.
               [53]               Al-Adjani               [sic]               v.

Kuwait,               Court               of               Appeal               (Civil               Division),               1996.
               [54]               Id.
               [55]               Id.
               [56]               Id.
               [57]               Al-Adsani               v.

the               United               Kingdom               Judgment,               European               Court               of               Human               Rights,               2001.
               [58]               Id.
               [59]               Id.
               [60]               Id.
               [61]               Jones               v.

Saudia               Arabia,               House               of               Lords,               2006.
               [62]               Id.
               [63]               Id.
               [64]               Id.,               Lord               Hoffmann               quoting               Lord               Diplock               in               Alcom               Ltd.

V.

Republic               of               Colombia               (1984).
               [65]               Id.
               [66]               Id.
               [67]               Which,               of               course,               also               raises               the               issue               of               suing               a               state               in               its               own               courts.

Most               states               hold               themselves               immune               from               suit               within               their               own               courts.

A               torture               or               terrorist               state               is               hardly               likely               to               grant               an               exception               to               be               sued               for               such               acts               in               the               courts               within               its               control.






Image of injury lawyers scotland






injury lawyers scotland
injury lawyers scotland


injury lawyers scotland Image 1


injury lawyers scotland
injury lawyers scotland


injury lawyers scotland Image 2


injury lawyers scotland
injury lawyers scotland


injury lawyers scotland Image 3


injury lawyers scotland
injury lawyers scotland


injury lawyers scotland Image 4


injury lawyers scotland
injury lawyers scotland


injury lawyers scotland Image 5


  • Related blog with injury lawyers scotland








  • Related Video with injury lawyers scotland







    injury lawyers scotland Video 1








    injury lawyers scotland Video 2








    injury lawyers scotland Video 3




    injury lawyers scotland





























    Labels: , , ,

    0 Comments:

    Post a Comment

    Subscribe to Post Comments [Atom]

    << Home